Land is one of Malta’s most important environmental media, providing the context for its life support systems, and thus for biodiversity and human life itself. Social and cultural activities use land as a backdrop, and land is a basic resource for economic activity. Due to Malta’s size, population density and interesting island biodiversity, decisions relating to land-use change are often highly contested. Subsequently, the thrust is to direct development within the development zone while protecting sites and areas designated for their ecological, scientific, archæological and other value.

Policy Context

Land use is affected by agriculture, the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, resource management, housing, and transport, and by policies formulated to direct these. However, the principal instrument through which conflicts between competing interests for land are resolved is the land-use planning system. The legal framework for planning in Malta is set out in the 1992 Development Planning Act,[1] through which the Planning Authority was first established, as well as a detailed and hierarchical system of Development Plans and Planning Policies on which decisions regarding land-use change are based. Primary among these is the 1990 Structure Plan for the Maltese Islands[2], which sets out 320 policies offering strategic land-use guidance at the national level, and which is currently under review. Seven local plans provide local interpretations of the general policies of the Structure Plan. Five of these were approved in 2006, while the other two – the Marsaxlokk Bay Local Plan and the Grand Harbour Local Plan were approved in 1995 and 2002 respectively. Through these, potential conflicts emerging from decisions relating to land use can be addressed earlier in the development process, when there is more scope for discussion. The Structure and Local Plans are supported by a set of supplementary planning guidance notes (Planning Policies).

The agriculture sector, now operating within the single market and an EU policy context, is guided by the Rural Development Plan for 2007-2013. In line with EU policy, this seeks to improve the competitiveness of the agricultural sector, the rural environment and quality of life, as well as help diversify the rural economy. This is addressed through the use of agri-environmental measures under which farmers receive financial benefits for undertaking conservation-friendly measures such as organic farming and the management of the rural infrastructure, for example the maintenance of dry stone walls.

Nature conservation policy is guided by the EU Habitats and Birds Directives and the related national legislation that seeks to protect areas of national and international conservation importance. Of particular interest are Natura 2000 sites that need to be formally managed within six years of designation, to ensure that the chief threats to habitats and species in that area are reduced or eliminated. The European Landscape Convention, although not yet ratified by Malta, has been taken on board through the planning system.

Water issues in Malta are regulated through the Water Framework Directive and its related national legislation under the Malta Resources Authority Act and the Environment Protection Act. The principal considerations are the control and coordination of activities on land that might have a detrimental effect on water quality by means of a water catchment management plan.

National legislation, the Fertile Soil (Preservation) Act, covers the preservation of this strategic resource. There is no current legislation on non-agricultural soils or on the remediation of contaminated industrial soils.

National housing policy focuses on access to affordable housing and is implemented by the Malta Housing Authority. The land-use dimension is administered through the planning system, which provides the strategic context in terms of supply and location of land. Transport policy is implemented by the Malta Transport Authority, and a strategic direction may be found in the TEN-T report for Malta and the document on Public Transport.

The countryside, which made up 70 % of Malta’s land area in 2006 (CLC2006), contributes fundamentally to the islands’ life support systems by providing ecosystem services related to clean air, soil, and ground and surface waters. It also plays a fundamental role in contributing the physical backdrop to the national heritage, as well as providing the context for recreational, æsthetic, sporting and exercise-related activities. It also provides a location for economic activities related to agriculture, tourism, minerals extraction and recreation.

Land cover

Land-cover monitoring presents an opportunity to observe large-scale change to land cover over time. For Malta, while CORINE Land Cover Change (CLC) information assists with understanding land cover and monitoring large-scale changes over longer timeframes, the large scale (25 ha) of the grid used does not permit analysis that is sensitive enough to monitor short-term land-use change with a great deal of accuracy. The survey nevertheless provides a snapshot of Malta’s land cover in 2006 (Map 4.1).

Source: MEPA

Map 4.1 Land cover by type (CLC 2006)

Agriculture remains the predominant land cover at 51 % of land area, followed by natural vegetation at 18 %, of which 84 % is drought-resistant (Table 4.1). Approximately 22 % of the islands’ 315 km² (as per CLC resolution) is characterised by urban development, and an additional 7% is covered by industrial and commercial units, mineral extraction sites, airports, port areas, dump sites, green urban areas and sports and recreational facilities. This is chiefly concentrated in the North Eastern part of the mainland, and there are pockets of development across the Gozitan landscape, mainly in the south and central parts of that island.

Source: MEPA

Table 4.1 Area and percentage of land cover by type, CLC 2006

Given the above, the changes in land cover of the Maltese Islands between CLC 2006 and CLC 2000 are minimal. The principal change, approximately 2.7 km², or 0.85 % of the total land area, relate to the conversion of sclerophyllous vegetation, agricultural land and non-irrigated arable land to discontinuous urban fabric, industrial or commercial units, mineral extraction sites and dumping sites[B1].

Malta’s relatively high urban land cover, while attributable to its population density, raises questions about the overall efficiency of land use when viewed in the context of the latest census (2005) relating to residential occupancy. In 2005, 22.4 % of residential dwellings were permanently vacant, and only 5 % were second homes (see discussion on housing in Sub-report 1). Similar over-provision has also been observed in the commercial and industrial sectors.[1] There is significant potential for improving the overall efficiency of land use, given current over-supply of residential, commercial and industrial premises. The potential of using incentives to achieve this merits investigation.

Pressures on the countryside

Due to the small size of the islands and the density of different land uses, countryside areas are exposed to conflicting pressures. Understanding the dynamics of the countryside is intrinsic to providing measures to protect and enhance it. The principal anthropogenic pressures in countryside areas relate to agriculture and land development.

Agriculture

The CORINE land cover map indicates that approximately 51 % of the Maltese countryside is characterised by agricultural activity. However agriculture has a mixed legacy for environmental protection. It is agriculture that maintains the countryside, and particularly the rural landscape. Already suffering from abandonment, agricultural areas would fall further into decline without farmers maintaining the traditional landscape generally characterised by small fields demarcated by dry stone walling, and many important plant and animal species would become threatened as they have evolved to thrive in synergy with 

agriculture. But this role is not easy for the farming community to maintain due to profitability and competitiveness issues. The decreasing size of agricultural holdings, 89 % of holdings are less than 2 ha, indicates to some degree the pressures modern Maltese agriculture is under. In response, agricultural practices have often become intensified.

Intensified agriculture can have negative effects on the rural environment, either through the adoption of non-environmentally friendly practices such as the increased use of chemicals and over-pumping of ground water through illegal boreholes, or through the use of structures such as animal farms and greenhouses in sensitive areas. The number of greenhouses increased by approximately 14 % between 2000 and 2007. At the same time, and as noted in the Driving Forces Sub-report, while greenhouses tend to consume more energy to control climatic conditions than traditional farming methods, they also allow a more controlled use of water and agrochemicals. The Rural Development Programme 2007-2013 recognises the impact of agricultural intensification and seeks to encourage environmental stewardship in the farming community (see section 4.2.2 below). Other socio-environmental impacts in the rural environment that are related to agriculture include land abandonment, loss of dry-stone walls, agricultural land reclamation, blocking of countryside access, and the inappropriate design of rural buildings.

Development

It is possible to assess changes to and pressures on countryside areas through an analysis of developments permitted outside the development zone. The principal type of development permitted relates to agriculture, including tool rooms and reservoirs, but also larger developments such as animal breeding units and fish farms. Permissions for dwellings (Figure 4.1) also represent a sizeable proportion of development in rural areas, although these only averaged 3 % of total dwelling permissions over the period 2000-2008.The share of housing development located outside the development zone has fallen by some 0.3 % annually since 2000, when it stood at 3.4 %, although it rose marginally, 2.2-2.3 % between  2007 and 2008. It is also interesting to consider the trend with regard to whether development is largely on previously developed (brownfield) or as yet undeveloped (greenfield) land. The overall trend since 2000 is for the ratio to increasingly favour brownfield land: in 2000 70 % of all development was greenfield, but in 2005 it amounted to only 40 %. However, since 2005, the percentage of development on greenfield land has slowly begun to rise, to 51 % in 2008.

Other major types of development in rural areas include quarries, access routes including roads and paths, boundary walls, and additions to already existing developments. In terms of land take, major social and community developments have had an impact over the review period due to their envisaged land requirements. Overall, the cumulative effect of development in the countryside should be closely monitored and further efforts made for it to be strictly contained.

Figure 4.1 Number of dwelling units built outside the development zoneSource: MEPA Dwellings Database

Light pollution is an important, but as yet not widely recognised, impact of development in rural areas. This affects coastal environments and areas of important natural habitats, as well as the visual character of the landscape and the built environment. The light pollution issue is briefly addressed in the Structure Plan, Local Plan and other policies.[1] PA (Planning Authority). 2002. Employment Topic Paper, Final Draft June 2002, PA, Floriana.

Drivers of land-use change

The key drivers of land-use change are socio-economic: demography, economic development, transport, etc. Malta’s 2008 Environment Report (www.mepa.org.mt/ter08-drivingforces) indicates that while the population has largely met its basic material needs, it continues to place unsustainable demands on the environment. It notes that the number of vacant properties on the islands has continued to rise, with 22.4 % of all dwellings lying permanently vacant in 2005. Urgent measures, including economic instruments and re-orientation of the construction industry towards rehabilitation, are needed to address this in ways that do not place undue pressures on affordability and availability of housing, and take social and economic implications into account.

The 2008 Environment Report also states that tourism is important in terms of gross domestic product (GDP), but it puts significant pressure on the environment due to additional consumption of resources, an increase in waste generation and land take for tourism infrastructure. The report suggests that the industry should focus on ensuring a quality product that prevents undue pressure on natural resources, for example by spreading tourism intake more evenly throughout the year and penetrating niche markets that are generally more sensitive to and supportive of conservation.

The continued rise in vehicle numbers is of concern due to the environmental and social impacts of their use. The high percentage of imports of older and more polluting second-hand vehicles is of concern confirming that the renewal of Malta’s car fleet with smaller and more efficient vehicles is urgently required. There is also an urgent need to make public transport alternatives at least as reliable and attractive as private car use.

Although the agriculture sector is small in terms of employment and contribution to GDP, it is a major environmental player. Agricultural practices can have serious impacts in terms of pollution of the countryside. However good farming practices can positively influence countryside and landscape quality, and sustain key environmental resources such as biodiversity, soil and water.

The report also notes that Malta’s environmental targets and objectives related to air pollution and climate change can only be met by decoupling its increasing total energy demand from economic growth. The islands remain far from reaching EU renewable energy and energy efficiency targets – to reach these Malta will need to reduce consumption and develop widespread use of alternative technologies.

With regard to outlooks, Malta has no projections for land-use change.

Activities undertaken to improve the rural environment

The rural environment is shaped by a large number of inter-related human activities and natural processes. The integrated management of agricultural, recreational, quarrying and other activities, as well as natural heritage protection, is the key to an improved rural environment. This section describes the principal measures being adopted to mitigate the impacts of agriculture and other activities on the countryside. These include rural development policy, nature protection policy, organic farming, afforestation, quarry restoration, and measures taken through the planning system such as the Environmental Projects in Partnerships (EIPP).

Rural development policy

The application of the Code of Good Agricultural Practice (CoGAP) and use of agri-environmental schemes within the framework of the Common Agriculture Policy is the principal EU-related mechanism for improving the environmental performance of the agriculture sector. The CoGAP was developed as part of Malta’s obligations under the Nitrates Directive. It is a compilation of good farming practices pertinent to all the other Directives, prevailing national legislation, and good farming practices and consists of a list of codes of good practices on animal husbandry, manure handling, application of fertilisers, irrigation and plant protection.

Agri-environment schemes and the EU’s Less Favoured Areas (LFAs) measures have been established in Malta through both the 2004-2006 Rural Development Plan and the 2007-2013 Rural Development Programme.

The 2004-2006 plan contained an agri-environment scheme to promote the protection, maintenance and enhancement of the traditional rural environment of the Maltese islands. Three sub-measures offered were:

• Sub-measure A: restoration of retaining terraced dry-stone walls;
• Sub-measure B: maintaining biodiversity by conserving and enhancing autochthonous species – this measure was made available for the conservation of the Maltese ox Breed (Il-Baqra Maltija) and the holm oak (Il-Balluta, Quercus ilex);
• Sub-measure C: encouraging the use of simple environmental practices through the promotion of organic farming methods.

Source: Rural Development Department

Figure 4.2 Area of agricultural land provided with financial support under the agri-environment support scheme or through the LFA scheme (2004-2006)

Between 2004 and 2006, 1 642 farmers benefited from Sub-measure A, through which approximately 28 ha of rubble walls were funded for restoration (Chart 4.2). Agri-environment support has been provided to eight beneficiaries who sought to adopt organic farming practices, over 15 ha of agricultural land.  During the same period, six beneficiaries received funding for Sub-measure B, related to the maintenance and conservation of the holm oak. This sub-measure covered an area of approximately 2.7 ha of agricultural land, and ensured that, in order to protect this tree, beneficiaries refrained from applying any herbicide on their land.

Figure 4.2 indicates that the application of sub-measures gained momentum in 2006. Sub-measure A was widely applied, increasing the area of dry-stone walls from 9.2 ha in 2004 to 11.7 ha in 2006; land affected by Sub-measure B increased from 0.21 ha in 2005 to 13 ha in 2006. However the agri-environment measures (AEMs) fell short of targets set in the 2004-2006 Rural Development Plan. Nevertheless factors resulting in difficulties with the application of the sub-measures have been taken into consideration when designing the new environment measures for 2007-2013.

The 2007-2013 Rural Development Programme has established nine AEMs (Table 4.2), bringing forward and widening the scope of the previous agri-environmental schemes relating to dry-stone walls, the breeding and protection of autochthonous species, and organic farming. The previous Sub-measure A has been incorporated within the new AEM 6 for the conservation of rural structures providing a natural habitat for fauna and flora, which now also seeks the protection of other rural structures such as the girna (stone huts), water reservoirs and water channels. Sub-measure B has been incorporated in AEM 9, which continues to encourage the breeding of the Maltese ox, and has expanded the list of qualifying trees species. The previous Sub-measure C has been incorporated within AEM 8, which offers support for organic farming.

Source: Ministry for Rural Affairs and the Environment (MRAE). 2007. Rural Development Programme 2007-2013, MRAE, Valletta. 

Table 4.2 Agri-environmental measures established under the Rural Development Programme 2007-2013

The application of the LFAs measure aims to ensure sustainable agricultural land use, in order to maintain the countryside in areas that face natural disadvantages. All 11 017 ha of Malta’s agricultural land qualifies for funds under the LFAs measure in view of the natural and geographical characteristics of the islands. The LFAs measure aims to ensure the continued use of agricultural land over a 5-year commitment period. The measure covered approximately 8 600 ha of agricultural land during 2006, declining slightly from 8 892 ha in 2004, and is available for all farmers who have been working the land for a specified period. 

Nature Protection

Nature protection, reflecting EU policy in this area, also contains important measures that will have significant impacts on rural areas. Since the end of 2008, 20.4% of Malta's land area has been under protective designations, while 13.06 % had been accepted as part of the Natura 2000 network. Under this scheme, all Natura 2000 sites will need to be formally managed within six years of designation. Area management has significant potential for resolving some of the user conflicts that result in degradation of rural areas.

Organic farming

Council Regulation 2092/91, and later amendments, provide a legal framework for organic farming in the EU. There were 14 registered producers of organic products in the islands at end 2008. The years 2005-2008 saw an increase in the amount of land used for organic produce from 14 ha to 21.78 ha. This is approximately 0.19 % of total agricultural land, and 0.21 % of utilised agricultural Area. However there was a decrease in organically cultivated area between 2006 and 2007, from 20.1 ha to 17.3 ha. It is estimated that in 2008, 50 % of organically cultivated land was used for the production of vegetables, melons and strawberries, 11 % for the production of root crops, and, in 2007, another 11% for the production of olives. Nevertheless, in comparison with other EU countries, Malta, in 2007, had a very low share of organic agriculture.

While organic farming is still an emerging practice in Malta, its potential is increasingly being recognised through institutional changes. The past five years have seen the establishment of an Organic Farming Unit within the Ministry for Resources and Rural Affairs, a legal framework to govern the activity, a certification body – the Malta Standards Authority, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) promoting organic farming, such as the Malta Organic and Agriculture Movement and the Genista Foundation. As noted above, organic farming is also supported by the Rural Development Programme 2007-2013. Work has also been directed towards providing a national strategy for the promotion of organic agriculture, and the development of multifunctional organic farming. The 2002 strategy identified areas that require development in order to support the application of relevant EU legislation and identified a need for: the provision of training for institutions, as well as individuals and associated farms; the development of organic farming in Malta through experimentation and demonstration of the application and management techniques suitable in the Maltese context; the implementation of a dissemination plan encouraging the further development of organic farming through already established entities; and encouraging the establishment of a producers’ association in order to overcome the constraints related to farm size. There are mixed prospects for the increase of organic farming in the Maltese Islands, however the political commitment to make Gozo an eco-island suggests that these prospects could improve, at least there.

Afforestation

There are a number of afforestation initiatives that seek to increase the percentage of forested area on the islands, while also seeking to reintroduce native tree species and provide a means of improving the landscape. The Common Agricultural Policy also encourages afforestation to protect the soil resource and thus the environment. Afforestation is encouraged by the Ministry for Resources and Rural Affairs through its 34U Campaign under which 50 000 tress were planted in 2007-2008, and also by NGOs through individual projects at Xrobb il-Għaġin, Wied Għollieqa, Il-Għadira areas, or through the Foresta 2000 initiative. NGOs are also carrying out a number of smaller afforestation projects linked to the rehabilitation of historical sites such as Din L-Art Ħelwa’s site at Bir Miftuħ. There was a noticeable increase in the number of trees planted between 2003 and 2007, with an increase of approximately 14 % between 2006 and 2007 alone (Figure 4.3).

A total of 33 278 trees were planted in 2007. Between 2006 and 2007 trees planted by Government, excluding Foresta 2000, increased by 13 % and by the Environmental Landscapes Consortium Limited by 23 %.

Source: MRRA, Din l-Art Ħelwa, Nature Trust (Malta), The GAIA Foundation and Birdlife (Malta)

Figure 4.3 Trees planted, 2003-2007

The major tree species being planted in the projects managed by Nature Trust (Malta) and the GAIA Foundation are the chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus), sandarac gum (Tetraclinis articulata), dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis), olive (Olea europea), lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus), carob  (Ceratonia siliqua), holm oak (Quercus ilex), myrtle (Myrtus communis), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and tamarisk (Tamarix africana). While afforestation has definite benefits for the environment afforestation projects are sometimes approached as a monoculture rather than an ecological project seeking the restoration of an entire habitat type. The ecosystem approach to afforestation has been adopted in the Foresta 2000 project, a conservation project designed to re-establish the Mediterranean woodland in the Mellieħa area. 

Restoration of quarries

Minerals extraction is a major source of dust, vibrations, noise and landscape degradation, particularly during the extraction phase. As a result, the restoration of quarries is becoming an increasingly important aspect of minerals planning. Restoration is encouraged through the Structure Plan, the Minerals Subject Plan and the various local plans, where priority is given to the restoration for agricultural use. The Structure Plan built upon the existing quarry regulatory framework, which was based on a police licensing regime which did not address the need for the eventual restoration of the quarry. However conditions were being imposed by the then Department of Environment, requiring the removal of the plant and equipment, and ensuring that the operator had a responsibility to leave the quarry in a state suitable for agriculture. A system of bonds was introduced by MEPA to ensure the restoration of quarries, the completion of landscaping and the removal of the plant and machinery after the completion of extraction. As a result, quarry restoration has been ongoing for a number of years.

There have been a number of development permissions issued for the restoration of quarries, where works only consider infilling with inert waste, while other applications seek to rehabilitate the area to arable agricultural use. A few restoration projects have been of an industrial nature, and there have also been a number of permissions for housing in former quarries. Quarries are also being used for animal husbandry. However the reuse and restoration of quarries does not necessarily need to be limited to these traditional uses. International examples of restoration of mining sites show their potential in terms of biodiversity and geo-diversity. This aspect of quarry restoration deserves further exploration. Indeed, the meeting of national biodiversity targets could be assisted through the creation of wildlife habitats in disused quarries. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds indicates that spent quarries can be transformed into such habitats as woodland and reed beds to support wildlife and provide natural space for people. Restoration of disused quarries for bio-conservation purposes could, for example, display special geological features such as karstic structures.

Measures taken through the planning system to improve the countryside

The Structure Plan for the Maltese Islands seeks to ‘radically improve the quality of all aspects of the environment of both urban and rural areas’. To this end, the planning system employs a number of tools to facilitate better protection and management of the countryside. These include the scheduling of natural areas for their ecological, scientific or geo-morphological interest, and preparation of action plans to ensure their management, the designation of areas of landscape value, the provision of Supplementary Planning Guidelines for agricultural development, and the carrying out of environmental improvement projects in partnership with environmental NGOs and other actors.

The primary mechanism for the protection and enhancement of countryside areas through the planning system may be found in the legislative framework provided through the Development Planning Act. This provides for the scheduling of areas of ecological and scientific importance (Structure Plan Policy RCO 1) according to a hierarchy of levels. Approximately 15 % of the islands is protected as of 2008 under this Act. In such areas, clear guidance is provided as to what type of development may take place. The Structure Plan Explanatory Memorandum stipulates the nature of permitted activity and development within Areas of Ecological Importance and Sites of Scientific Importance, the boundaries of which are outlined in the various local plans. 

The planning system also gives specific protection to landscape. The Maltese landscape has been moulded over time by natural and anthropological forces and can be described as a cultural rather than a natural landscape. It is characterised by karstic rock formations, the closely-knit geometric forms of settlements dominated by domes and steeples, terraced agricultural fields and Mediterranean flora. A total of 51 % of Malta’s land area was characterised as being of high or very high landscape sensitivity in the assessment study of 2004. The Structure Plan also provides for the designation of Areas of High Landscape Value (AHLV). The number of AHLVs increased by more than 200 % following the approval of the last five local plans in 2006 (Map 4.2), so that the total area designated for landscape value constituted 33 % of the islands’ total land area by end 2007 (Map 4.2). However the Maltese rural landscape remains threatened by various socio-economic processes, including the intensification of agriculture, dumping, and sporadic development.

Source: MEPA

Map 4.2  Areas protected for landscape value

An important policy instrument that emerged in the review period is the 2007 MEPA Policy and Design Guidance on Agriculture, Farm Diversification and Stables, which aims to support development that is essential and genuine to the needs of sustainable agriculture and rural development. This would enhance the competitiveness of the rural economy and encourage farmers to diversify their principal agricultural activities. The guidance seeks to discourage proliferation of unnecessary new buildings outside the development zone and to ensure proper conservation and management of the countryside.

The EIPP is a MEPA funding scheme that benefits both natural and cultural heritage through direct and active involvement with the other governmental and non-governmental organisations.  The fund is sourced through planning gain and forfeited bank guarantees.[1] In its years of operation since mid-2005, some €1.17 million have been committed.

A number of projects have been initiated since the establishment of EIPP, most of which focus on the protection of historic and natural areas. Other projects included the enhancement of archaeological sites, the management of marine protected areas, and the funding of large-scale projects that contribute to better environmental management. 

Conclusion

This brief review of trends and issues in the rural environment has noted that it remains largely dominated by agriculture, which has an important stewardship role in ensuring countryside quality. It also notes, however, that the rural environment faces threats such as land abandonment, loss of dry-stone walls, dumping, agricultural land reclamation. It also highlights that the Rural Development Plan’s agri-environmental measures exploit the synergies between agriculture and environment and should be sustained and resourced in the future. A high quality rural environment has a major role in providing an improved quality of life. The recent initiatives to develop management plans, which facilitate the improved management of competitive land uses within designated areas, facilitate a comprehensive approach to countryside management. These management plans will also play an important role in ensuring countryside quality.